How do we acquire our information about life in ancient Egypt? From tombs. Because Egyptians believed it was possible for the spirit, and perhaps even the body, to enjoy a good life following death, they filed their tombs with furnishings they would need in the next life and with painted and carved scenes from daily life. Thus, their preparations for death provide us with detailed information about their life.

Just as the sun was reborn every morning, and the Nile flooded predictably once a year, the ancient Egyptian organized their society to assure stability and continuity. Society was organized by class and gender, and controlled by a sophisticated bureaucratic government and highly developed community rules and customs.

The longevity and stability of Egyptian civilization is in part due to a rigid social structure that acknowledged the King's supreme importance as the sole representative of the people in venerating the gods.

Women's Roles in Society
Women enjoyed a degree of equality in ancient Egypt, although men held most occupations in the higher classes. Women could own property and trade goods. Some women held high government office and a few ruled as King under unusual circumstances. Women of the working classes were involved in many aspects of food production such as gleaning the fields, grinding grain, and baking bread. Women from the laboring class could be musicians, singers, dancers, servants, and professional mourners. In Egyptian art, women are usually shown with pale yellow skin and men with darker, red-brown flesh, probably reflecting that women generally stayed indoors, and men worked outdoors.

The Necessities of Life and Personal Adornment
To judge from the art in the tombs of the nobles and kings, the basic Egyptian diet consisted of barley, figs, various vegetables, dates, honey, and bread made from wheat. Probably only the wealthy could afford meat. The favorite drinks were beer and wine.

Clothing was made from flax, wool and leather. Men wore kilts twisted tightly around the body and tied at the waist and sometimes shirts. Women wore dresses with hems below the knees.

Houses were made from sun-dried brick. Wood was expensive and only the wealthy could afford wooden furniture or wooden beams in their houses. "Houses" for the gods (temples), however, were usually made of stone. Townhouses were several stories high and were typically grouped closely together. Country houses were usually sprawling one-story structures with open courts and gardens.

Elaborate hair and wig styles for men and women varied from period to period and priests usually shaved their heads. Eye makeup, made from a black paste called kohl, was worn to decorate and to protect the eyes. Women colored their cheeks and lips with rouge, and applied henna to stain the palms of their hands.

In ancient Egypt, both men and women wore jewelry. Jewelry worn by the King, Queen, and upper nobility was made of gold and semi-precious stones, while members of the lower class adorned themselves in more common materials, such as terracotta or low-grade faience. Jewelry was believed to protect the deceased and have value in the afterlife.

Writing and Scribes
Writing was at the very center of ancient Egyptian civilization. From its development around 3000 BC to its latest known use at the end of the fourth century AD, hieroglyphic writing, along with two other forms of script, was employed. These forms virtually disappeared until modern scholarship unlocked many of the keys to this elusive language.

Hieroglyph is a Greek word meaning "sacred writing." In addition to being a form of communication, hieroglyphic images were believed to have the magical ability to come alive as actual objects, animals, gods, or activities that they represented.

The Egyptian word for scribe means "he who writes." Scribes were exclusively male and were recruited from all levels of society. According to their abilities and social standing they might become "Secretary" of state, or only serve to write receipts for minor transactions. All high-ranking Egyptians - priests, army officers, and administrators - were qualified scribes and under the patronage of the god Thoth. Even the king had to learn to write!

The Egyptian god Thoth was the patron of scribes and of all arts and sciences. He was often shown with the body of a man and the head of an ibis, a bird from the Nile River. Thoth was considered the official record keeper and archivist of the gods and goddesses, and thus was present during all formal rituals. Scribes were privileged and were exempt from taxes and manual labor, but their training was rigorous. The words of an Egyptian father to his son around 2,000 BC have an oddly contemporary ring to them: Understand that I am putting you in school for your own good. A scribe never knows poverty, and from childhood is greeted with respect. Love writing, hate dancing, and do not set your heart on playing. Keep away from beer and girls!

All text this section from the original exhibition text panels, © Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. All rights reserved.