CRUEL BEGINNINGS

A TALE OF TWO BOYS

In early Rome, people lived in small communities that grew into city-states. Kings from the wealthiest families ruled these city-states. These kings used whatever methods were needed to hold on to power and control their city-states.

Roman legend offers a tale of two twin boys named Romulus and Remus who were born into one of these wealthy families. Their evil uncle, the king, feared that the two boys would someday threaten his power and rob him of his throne. The infants were kidnapped, put into a basket and then dropped into the cold waters of Tiber River by the evil uncle. The cruel king watched the basket drift down the river, hoping that he would never see his nephews again and that they would die.

The cries of the two baby boys attracted the attention of a she-wolf. She rescued the babies, nursed them back to health and raised them as her own. Later the boys were discovered and taken in by a Shepard who recognized their royal blood. Taking after their real father, the war god Mars, Romulus and Remus grew up to be proud, strong and determined.

The two brothers decided to start a city of their own on the banks of the Tiber River. The young men began to argue over the exact location and design of the city. To help settle their dispute each brother prayed to the gods for a sign. When Remus prayed, six eagles appeared. When Romulus prayed, twelve eagles appeared. Romulus felt that twelve eagles was a sign from the gods that he was right. Remus refused to accept this. In a rage, he turned on his brother and tried to kill him but Romulus defended himself and killed Remus instead. Romulus completed his city and it became known as Rome, in honor of its founder.

A PERFECT PLACE

If you had to pick a perfect place for a city, especially in ancient times, you might have picked the exact spot where Rome was built. The nearby Tiber River offered easy access to the sea. Most transportation and commerce was done by water and the Tiber River ensured that Rome's economy could grow and prosper.

The seven hills surrounding Rome helped to shelter and protect the ancient city. Military lookout points on these hills made invasion by enemy forces difficult. Natural protection from these hills made it possible for the city of Rome to build towards the future without the threat or distraction of hostilities from outside forces.

Property just outside the city offered rich farmland and ample natural resources such as wood and stone for building. These lands initially provided Rome with enough resources and ensured that the city could meet the needs of its ever-increasing population.

OVER LAND AND OVER SEA

WHERE IN THE WORLD

Rome is in Italy. People have found Italy to be a good place to live since the Stone Age because the land is fertile and the climate is warm and mostly pleasant. However, Rome did not come into power until after the great civilizations of Egypt and Greece were established and thriving. Ancient Roman history is usually divided into three main periods, before the rise of Rome, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.

SECRET OF THEIR SUCCESS

One reason Rome grew so large was due to its ability to take in and blend other cultures and people into one society. The rights of citizenship were often extended to the people conquered by the Roman army. Many times, after gaining citizenship, these same people would join the Roman army themselves. The sheer numbers and strength of the army let Rome control a large portion of the world for more than one thousand years. The Roman Empire stretched as far north as Britain, south into Africa and west into parts of Asia, giving the Romans unlimited access to valuable resources that helped to increase their vast power base.

A FORCE TO BE RECKONED WITH

Over time, Rome's army grew to a force of 300,000 soldiers. Soldiers were grouped into units of 6,000 men. Each of these units was called a legion and Roman soldiers were known as Legionaries. Legionaries were paid well and when they retired they were given a sum of money or a plot of land. While in the Roman army each solider was housed, clothed and fed.

Army life for Legionaries was hard and started with basic training. Soldiers learned how to use weapons and worked to become physically conditioned for strenuous work. After training, Roman soldiers were just as likely to be ordered to help build a bridge or roadway, as they were to engage in combat.

The Romans were excellent road builders. Soldiers would build roads to and from the countries they conquered. They built their roads as straight as they could to give themselves the shortest routes possible. Roman roads were built in 5 layers. Trenches were dug for new roads and a layer of stone was placed on the bottom. Next, a cement mixture of broken stones, pebbles and sand was put into the trench. A second cement mixture using broken tiles created the third layer. Paving stones made the fourth layer. These stones were cut so they would fit together tightly. Lastly, curbstones were placed at the outer edge of the roadway. These stones were set in at an angle to make a channel for the water to run off and away from the road. In fact the principle reasons for all of Roman road building was first to move the Roman army around and second to get trade goods into Rome.

GOODS TO GO

The Romans made trade easy. Everyone used one currency and if goods did not come into Rome by ship they could be brought in by Rome's extensive road system. With over a million people living in the city, Italian farmers could not grow enough food. Rome relied primarily on trade to feed its masses. Large amounts of grain arrived almost daily from Africa. Many ships made the three to five day trip from the North African city of Carthage to the large ports that serviced Rome in Ostia. Built at the mouth of the Tiber River, the ports of Ostia handled the huge amounts of trade goods needed to maintain life in the immense city of Rome. Once the goods made it to Ostia, slaves unloaded the ships onto barges that could make the15 mile trip up the shallow Tiber River to Rome.

Rome imported beef, grain, precious and non precious metals, timber, oils, spices, wine, glass, pottery and marble. These goods came in from all over the Empire. Trading was heaviest with North Africa, the Middle East, Spain and France. North Africa, particularly Egypt, provided Rome with much of its grain. Metals such as gold, copper and tin were imported from what are now Spain, France and Britain. Romans also imported lead and wool from Britain. Rome exported items such as wine, olive oil, pottery and papyrus to Britain. As goods were imported into Rome, with some being exported back out, trade routes began to develop that eventually became the backbone of Rome's economy.

LIFE IN THE BIG CITY

NIGHT AND DAY

The difference between how the poor and how the rich lived in Rome was like the difference between night and day. The working poor and the unemployed were known as plebeians. Conditions for them were not always good and daily life could be harsh. Craftsmen, shopkeepers and farmers worked hard from sun up to sun down. They started out with a little bread for breakfast, worked hard all day and took few breaks. After a small evening meal they went right home to go to sleep so they could get up and put in another hard day of work.

Most plebeians lived in Rome's many slum-like apartment buildings. These wooden structures were cramped and poorly constructed. Each apartment, usually one room, was small and poorly equipped. Ovens were banned in the crowded apartment buildings, due to fear of fire. If fire broke out it moved quickly through the wooden slums and almost always destroyed the entire building. For their meals, the people of Rome had to rely on street vendors or street side taverns where they could walk up and buy soup, sausages, pies, fried fish or fruit to go. The Romans were the first lovers of fast food. They called it take-away food.

Streets in Rome were dirty and crowded. When walking on the streets of Rome you had to be careful. Apartment buildings were often six stories high and you never knew when or what people might be throwing out of their windows. Apartments in Ancient Rome did not have running water or bathrooms. Garbage, wash water and other waste were just tossed out of the window onto the street. Sidewalks gave pedestrians a place to walk so that they did not have to soil their feet. Even at night the streets of Rome were busy and noisy. Wagons and carts and other wheeled vehicles were forced by law to only move around by night since the streets were so crowed by day.

Life for wealthy Romans, especially men, was much easier. They started their days with a restful breakfast of bread, cheese, honey and water. Once they left the house for work they would see clients, write letters, go to the forum, eat a light lunch, take a nap, work a little more and then go the public baths. At home their wives would spend a great deal of time on their personal appearance and planning elaborate dinner parties. At the end of the day the men would go home to their townhouse to enjoy dinner with family and friends.

Their townhouses were very different from the apartments. A townhouse was built with several rooms and a central atrium area with a pool in the center. In addition to their townhouse in the city, the rich would also have a villa in the country. A villa is a large estate home built in the country by a wealthy Roman patrician. It took many slaves to run a villa. Often farmland and other property would surround the villa. Much of Rome's food came from the farmlands of these country estates. Surrounding the villa you might also find other buildings such as guest quarters, slave quarters, a bathhouse, workshops and small temples to the gods.

MEET AND GREET

The Romans were very social people, which was a good thing since there were so many of them. It didn't matter if they were shopping at the Forum or relaxing at a public bathhouse, the Romans were always ready for a little conversation, gossip or debate.

At the Forum, Rome's main marketplace, people could take care of their daily banking, shopping or trading. The Form was a large open-air plaza surrounded by many impressively columned and arched buildings. On the lower levels, storefronts and tradesmen's stalls were open to the outside. This arrangement offered easy access to shoppers as they wandered the marketplace and mingled with friends and business associates. Romans might also go to the Forum for festivals, religious ceremonies or to hear public debates concerning various topics of government policy.

Public baths were also a daily stop for Romans. The bathhouses were decorated with intricate mosaic floors and grand marble pillars to make the visit a luxurious experience. Women and men had separate bathhouses or different times to use the same bathhouse. At the bathhouse people would play games, exercise and visit with each other. They would go through a series of relaxing steam baths, hot baths and finally finish with a refreshing dip in a pool of cool water.

COMFORT OVER STYLE

In the beginning Romans wore togas. Togas were like wearing a bed sheet that was 9 yards long. Most Romans thought that togas looked nice but they were not the easiest garments to wear. A toga was hard to arrange and not really practical for everyday activities. Early Emperors of Rome tried to pass laws that made wearing a toga mandatory. This dress code was not too successful. The Roman people won out and the more practical tunic took the place of the toga, even though the toga was still used for ceremonies and special occasions.

Roman tunics looked like a longer version of our modern day tee-shirts. Romans wore them just the same as we wear our tee-shirts. Tunics were made from linen for the summer months and wool for the cooler months. Men and boy's tunics were knee length and women and girl's were ankle length. Sometimes the Romans would layer their tunics, wearing a short sleeve tunic over a long sleeved one. Women were allowed to wear brightly colored tunics but the men's were white. Cloaks and shawls were also worn over the tunics when needed. Eventually, the Roman men began to wear narrow, close-fitting pants under their tunics.

CHILD'S PLAY

Ancient Roman children went to school. The wealthy often paid tutors to teach their children, especially the boys, at home. Wealthy children would start school around seven years old. Boys went to school longer and were expected to know basic math, how to speak well in public and how to read and write in both Latin and Greek. These were skills that were important for high placed government jobs and positions. Girls were taught spinning, weaving, cooking, cleaning and sometimes reading. These were the skills they would need to run a household after marriage.

Even with their schoolwork Ancient Roman children had time to play with many toys. Board games were very popular as well as marbles, dice and knucklebones. Knucklebones, a popular game of skill, involved tossing small animal bones in the air and catching them on the back of the hand. Children in Ancient Rome also enjoyed playing with dolls and figurines. When a child reached adulthood they were expected to dedicate all their toys to the gods.

All freeborn children in Ancient Rome were given a bulla (bool'a a round lead seal affixed to an official Papal document) at birth. A child wore the bulla on a necklace like an amulet to protect against harm or evil. Wealthier children wore bullas made of metal, similar to a locket. Bullas were also made from soft, woven wool. Inside each type of bulla was a secret charm. Children were required to take off their bulla when they entered adulthood. Adults could save their bulla and men were allowed to wear it again in ceremonial parades, if they won special honors. Their bulla would protect them from the evil jealously of other men and the gods.

Girls could marry as early as 14 but boys were not considered adults and allowed to marry until they were 15 or 16. At 16 boys would change from wearing a short toga to wearing the traditional long toga. As a man, they were considered a citizen and allowed to vote. To celebrate the passage into manhood, a boy's father would throw a great party in honor of his son.

THAT'S ENTERTAINMENT

ROMAN HOLIDAY

In Ancient Rome there were many people living in the city who were not wealthy. The working poor and the unemployed were known as plebeians. Conditions for them were not always good and daily life could be harsh. They lived on the streets and in the city's many slum-like apartments.

To keep these people from becoming disenchanted and restless, Roman officials provided them with monthly rations of flour and continuous entertainment to keep them happy and out of trouble. Religious festivals, military victories and the emperor's birthday were some of almost 200 holidays that could be celebrated in a year. Large amphitheatres or U-shaped arenas hosted a number of bloodthirsty sports and events to celebrate these various official holidays. Circus Maximus was the largest of these arenas. It was used mostly for chariot racing and could seat up to 250,000 people.

GREATEST SHOW ON EARTH

If you went to the circus in Rome you would see animals and people performing, but it would be quite different from a circus that you would see today. The Roman's could be very cruel and their form of circus often involved killing animals, men killing each other or hungry animals eating prisoners. The crowds loved it. There was always pressure on officials to think up new, unusual and increasingly violent spectacles to keep the audiences pleased and excited.

ANIMAL CRUELTY

Romans viewed wild animals as an unlimited resource. Crowds were thrilled to watch animals attack and kill each other. An elephant versus a rhinoceros or a lion versus a bear were exciting competitions to the Romans and made them eager for more blood sports.

Lions, panthers, elephants and crocodiles would also be captured and brought into arenas for large elaborate hunts. Trees, rocks and other natural materials were used to create realistic environments for the hunt. Huntsmen wearing protective armor stalked and killed the confined animals until all of them were dead. It was not unusual for thousands of animals to be killed at these hunts.

Often animals would be sacrificed to honor the gods. Every year at the October Horse Festival, one poor horse would be killed because it made the mistake of winning the race. The winning horse's head was cut off to honor Mars, the Roman god of war.

WATCH OUT FOR CROCODILES

Another Roman crowd pleaser was a mock naval battle. The Colosseum was often used for this type of entertainment. Amphitheaters were flooded with water so that ships could be floated inside the arena. Prisoners-of-war or condemned criminals fought each other to the death, on opposing battle ships. Men from sinking ships were quickly surrounded by hungry crocodiles purposely put into the water to finish them off.

CHARIOTS OF FIRE

Just like racecar driving today, chariot racing in Ancient Rome was a dangerous sport. Chariot racing certainly existed before Rome but the Romans promoted these races to new heights just as Nascar has promoted car racing to greater popularity. Chariot racing was enjoyed in Rome by all social classes from emperors to slaves.

Chariot racing was held in a long oval shaped arena called a circus. Circus Maximus was the largest at 678 yards long. Just as there are racecar teams and drivers today there were also teams for chariot racing. In fact the organization of today's car racing is very similar to that of chariot racing in Ancient Rome.

Wealthy Romans sponsored and owned each chariot racing team. Teams, along with their drivers, would wear one particular color so that spectators could easily recognize them. All fans of chariot racing had their favorite chariot driver or charioteer. A successful charioteer was treated like an idol and admired for his ability, daring and bravery.

Charioteers stood upright in what looked something like a bucket cut in half on top of two wheels. Teams of horses, two to four, would pull the charioteer in the chariot around the track. The charioteer would hold the reins of the horses and wrap them around his waist so that he wouldn't fall out of the chariot as it raced around the track. Sometimes chariots went so fast that the iron rims of the wheels would become hot. This would set the wheels wooden spokes on fire. To put out the fire, an employee of the racetrack would have to dash out and throw water on the chariot's wheel.

Fire was not the only danger. Sharp turns at each end of the racetrack were a challenge for chariot drivers and their horses. Often chariots would be racing so fast that they could not make the turns. Crashes were often fatal. Few chariot drivers lived long enough to retire. Those who did survive were honored by emperors and enjoyed great wealth and fame.

POP STARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Successful gladiators were the pop stars of their day. For a gladiator success was a matter of life or death. There were several kinds of gladiators. Some were criminals, slaves or prisoners of war. Others were freemen who sold themselves to become gladiators and others were professionals who volunteered to fight. All non-professional gladiators belonged to an owner.

The owner or master was responsible for housing, feeding and training the gladiator. In return, a gladiator unconditionally pledged himself to his master. After becoming a gladiator, men who had once had very low social status were suddenly admired for their loyalty, courage and discipline.

Many Roman crowds enjoyed watching professional gladiators compete with each other rather than watching slaves against slaves. Successful, professional gladiators became quite popular. If they gained the interest and attention of a wealthy Roman citizen they might enjoy gifts of money as well as admiration.

Gladiators were given a choice of weapons and outfitted with armor. They specialized in hand-to-hand combat. A gladiator might use a knife, sword, spear, dagger, trident (a kind of pitch fork) as well as lassos or nets. Criminals who were condemned of capital crimes such as murder were sent into the arenas weaponless. A slave gladiator could earn his freedom after three to five years of combat. Gladiators might only fight two to three times a year but their survival rate was still low and few lived to see freedom. Most gladiators lived a short but glorious life!

THE PLAY'S THE THING AND OTHER AMUSEMENTS

Compared to the Circus Maximus and other arenas, attended in large numbers by the plebeians, Roman theaters were small and could only seat around 60,000 people at one time. Roman theater was modeled after the Greek's and plays were either comedies or tragedies. The theater progressed into elaborate productions that included large-scale scenery and performers who were expected to act, sing, do mime and acrobatic tricks.

Most art was for the wealthy who could afford to pay for it. While the masses were entertained by bloodthirsty events at the arenas, the wealthy patricians of Rome often staged entertainment at their own villas. Plays and poetry readings, dance performances and music recitals were often put on by private performers who lived with them at their villas.

On the streets of Rome, there were always more performers. Traveling musicians, clowns, acrobats, jugglers, and animal trainers all worked the crowds in hopes for a few coins. Pick up games of chance were also favorite pastimes. The Romans loved to play dice or knucklebones for money.